Afro-Dit
Weavings and Wood: Introduction to Tribal Arts from Southeast Asia to West Africa
Second hour: African Masks and Sculpture
The next thing I'd like to take up is the best known of the forms of African art, sculpture. This includes statuettes of one sort or another, and masks. These objects serve a very wide range of uses, and I'll have to do a lot of generalizing to keep within the constraints of time. Rather than a geographic survey, which is the most common approach to African art in books, what I'll try to do is treat them in more or less functional terms.
One major category of sculpture in Africa is objects that house the spirits of deceased people. For example, in some cultures the spirit of a dead ancestor lives on in a wooden sculpture created for that purpose. This allows the survivor to have the benefit of the ancestor's wisdom and protective intercessions with the gods, within his own home. Another, related type is the so-called ibeji figures made by the Yoruba.
This is an
example; typically, they are about 10 inches tall. The incidence of twin births
among the Yoruba is the highest in the world, about 5%. The Yoruba believe that
twins have special connections with the gods. When a twin dies, as is fairly
common, an ibeji figure is made to house its spirit. The mother cares for it,
rubbing it with oil, putting food onto it sometimes, and frequently caressing
it. This example gives us a good opportunity to see some of the general
characteristics of African sculpture. First, notice that although this is an
infant's spirit, it has an adult body and features. This is almost invariably
the case with African figures of humans. They are shown in the prime of life,
never as aged people and as children only when associated with an adult - for
example, babies in mother's arms. Notice, for instance, that the face has
scarifications and that the breasts are developed. Neither could possibly be
present in an infant. Second, notice that the forms of the body and of the face
are almost perfectly symmetric right and left. There is no suggestion of
motion; the person is clearly standing still and serene. This, too, is very
typical of African sculpture, and gives it a kind of a strong, quietly
confident attitude. It's very different than, for example, most Asian
sculpture, which usually has the bodies in poses of frozen action and faces
with asymmetric expressions suggestive of emotional displays. The head is
disproportionately large, and the navel is prominent. Both of these features
are characteristic of sculpture throughout Africa. The enlarged head is said to
reflect the belief that this is where the spirit resides. It certainly implies
importance. The navel's prominence signifies the continuity of life, the
connection of the person to his ancestry, the dependence of one life upon
another.
Notice, too, the beads on this piece. The Yoruba have a number of
gods, whose particular powers make their presence especially desirable in
certain situations. The colors of the beads used to adorn ibejis are said to
invoke specific gods and therefore identify the religious subgroup of the
mother.
This is another ibeji, more elaborately carved. The stylistic difference between this and the first one is pretty obvious, and reflects that the two came from different regions. This one has been adorned with some cowry shells, another fairly important iconographic element in Africa as well as in much of Asia, as well as with beads. The resemblance of cowries to the female external genitalia is fairly obvious, and cowry shells represent fertility in many cultures. In parts of Africa they were used as money, and imply wealth. That is likely to be the reason they were used here. Notice the scarifications and the triangular amulets. The amulets are typical of Yoruba groups that have adopted a variant on Islam.
This is a pair, probably of twins that both died at birth. They originally had facial features, which have worn off by the mother's handling. I find these artistically very strong, probably because of the obvious attention they received from the mother and because there is something about facelessness - the lack of identity - that seems very right to me for these two souls who died before they could develop any real identities.
All of these ibeji figures illustrate the essential features of African sculpture. Symmetric facial expressions, strong, unmoving posture, portrayal of humans in the prime of life, disproportionately large heads, prominent navels.
This is an example of another very well known kind of African sculpture, known as akua'ba. They are made by the Ashante people, of Ghana. This one is smaller than most, it is about 7 inches high. Ten to twelve inches is more typical. Having children is very important in almost every culture in the world, since the children are, in a very real sense, a person's old age pension in most societies (including our own until fairly recently). Among the Ashante, when a woman has had difficulty conceiving a child, she will have the local carver prepare an akua'ba for her. She cares for it and carries it everywhere she goes. If she pleases the spirit within it, she will have children. Notice the anatomical structure of this one, which is pretty typical. The head is very large in proportion to the body, and bears the scarification marks that are considered beautiful. The neck has rolls of fat, which mean that the spirit within is prosperous. The arms are unimportant, and are hardly more than stubs; the legs don't exist at all. The breasts are obvious, although not large, and the navel is about as large as they are. More prominent breasts would be fragile. Remember, these were carried everywhere the owner went. This one has what remains of what were probably many small strands of beads that invoked the assistance of various gods.
You may have seen rather large akua'ba in shops. These are made for sale, not to ensure childbearing. The large ones couldn't be carried around conveniently. The gift shop items are also usually decorated with paint, which, of course, wouldn't last very long when an akua'ba was a utilitarian item.
Most African sculpture is done in wood. Since west and central Africa are hot and, for the most part, damp, the wood doesn't last very long and examples that are even 100 years old are extremely rare. There are some terracotta pieces of genuine antiquity, though. This one is a figure of a woman nursing two children. It came from an excavation around Djenne, in Mali, and is about 700 years old. The large head, the symmetry of the body and face show us that these characteristics of African sculpture are not of recent origin. In fact, even the oldest terracottas, some dating back more than 2000 years, show these features. Unfortunately, we simply don't know what the older items meant or were used for. This one certainly suggests a connection with fertility.
I can't go by the terracottas without sharing with you two items from the Cameroon grasslands. This particular one is the bowl of a smoking pipe, and the wide-eyed, almost cartoon character expression instantly identifies it as Cameroon. A fancy pipe like this could be owned only by permission of the local king, and it signified the status of the owner.
The second one is a bit more iconographically complex, with serpents on the head of a monkey.
I'd like to segue into the subject of masks, and this little piece seems like a nice way to do that. It was made by the Lega, in Zaire. It's only about 6 inches high, so although it looks at first like a mask, it really is much too small to be one and that isn't what it is. In fact, it has a handle carved into it on the back, by which it can be carried.
The Lega, like many African societies, are organized into levels into which individuals progress as their age and wisdom increase. In most African cultures, in fact, in most cultures in the world including our own, there is a ceremonial progression from childhood into the community of adults. The Lega have five levels of adult, and the level that any individual has achieved is identifiable by the appurtenances he is permitted to own. The highest level, the most accomplished and learned adults, are permitted to own small mask-like items that are made of ivory. The next level down is identified by ownership of maskettes like this one. They are brought with their owners when the society meets. They can be worn attached to clothing, carried by a carved-in handle like this one has, or simply dragged by the raffia beard, which can be easily replaced.
The individual for whom one is made specifies the characteristics he wants his to have. The small mouth is typical, and presumably relates to temperance in speech. The heart-shaped face is typical of Lega maskettes, and many have traces of paint or kaolin on them. The blackened areas on this one appear to be charred wood, also fairly common. These items, although they can have an absolutely haunting appearance, seem to essentially be badges of rank and without any magical powers or indwelling spirits. They are not treated with any special care or respect, typically being hung on a fence or thrown into a basket when the Bwami society has its meeting.
Let's move on to masks. African masks were used in dances and processions, as part of what was usually a fairly elaborate costume. Some had supernatural power of one sort or another, others were simply intended to convey some message to those who witnessed the dance or procession.
A couple of slides back I showed you some pipe bowls from the Cameroon grasslands and said that the style made their source easily identifiable. This is a mask from the same area, and you might notice the stylistic similarity in the treatment of the eyes, the facial features, the large mouth. It's a mask, but not a face mask. It's worn atop the head, looking forward, and the wearer's face is concealed by a cloth veil. These are used during processions, funerals for instance, and signify the status of the person wearing them. This one, being a human form, is of the second level. The highest level people wear helmet masks with animal faces, and lead the procession.
This is one of the animal type; a jackal. Despite the obvious difference between this one and the previous example, you might notice the similarities in eye position, mouth, lizards at the top, and prominent cheeks. The enlarged cheeks are one peculiarity of Cameroon grasslands sculpture and masks, and have an interesting history. An 18th century king, who had cheeks so prominent that he was referred to as king fat-cheeks, drove the Fulani (the northern neighbors) out of the Cameroon grasslands, a victory of great historical significance to the people of the area. As a result, enlarged cheeks came to signify wisdom, power, and success, and became a prominent iconographic element of the art of the region.
This is a face mask used in coming of age ceremonies by the Dan, in Liberia. Notice the cowries. When we saw cowries on an ibeji, I said I thought they probably represented wealth. Within the context of coming of age, it seems more likely that they relate to fertility, and their genital suggestiveness is probably more important than the fact that they were used for money. The beard-like arrangement of goat bells probably also implies something about adulthood, since the beard is an adult characteristic. The bells would also have contributed a sound to the impressive display of a dancer wearing this in costume. The museum has a fully costumed example of one of these masks and, I believe, a video of the dance in one of the exhibits. I call your attention to the brow ridge and overall shape of the face, which is quite typical of the Dan and their neighbors.
This is a mask from one of the Dan's neighbors, the Toma or, in some sources, the Loma. It's very large, about 16 inches tall, which is typical for the Toma. Notice how similar the overall shape of the face and the treatment of the brow ridge are to the Dan mask. Despite the rather cubist qualities of the Toma mask, the relationship to the art of the Dan is fairly clear. About all I have been able to find out about masks of this type is that it is called a Bakaroji mask. I don't know if Bakaroji is a ceremony related to coming of age, a festival, or if it has some other meaning. It is very clear that a dancer wearing a mask like this one would make quite an impression on his audience.
This is a mask, believe it or not. It's about 4 feet tall, and is carried on the shoulders with the wearer's head inside. His eyes peek out through an opening between the breasts. This is Nimba, the Baga goddess of fertility. The Baga are in Guinea-Basseau, along the southern coast on the western end of west Africa. It is danced during the planting season, because Nimba has influence over the fertility of crops. Her aid is also invoked by women desiring children.
The last mask I want to show you was made by the Mama, a very small tribe in Nigeria. It is a helmet mask, so the "snout" faces forward. It is a stylized animal, probably a water buffalo or bushcow, and dancing it brings prosperity to the village. One of the things that I find interesting about this one, and the reason I used it in this necessarily very brief introduction to African sculpture, is the ambiguity of the incisions at the end of the snout.
As you can see, this can be read as the nostrils and end of an animal's snout, or as a face. Ambiguity of this sort is probably not an accident, and is seen frequently in many kinds of tribal arts. We'll see more examples of this aspect of tribal art next time.